Bangladesh has made important gains in the fight against poverty. Derided as a Basket-case only three years ago, Bangladesh today is definitely out of the shadow of famine. Uniquely for a country facing an extremely vulnerable ecology, Bangladesh has established a credible record of sustained growth within a stable macro-economic framework. But the question is how much this economic growth human sensitive and the development programmers taken by the government or any other actors are gender sensitive?
Dominant development theories reflect the context of the western policy makers which do not match with our reality. As a developing country Bangladesh has specific sets of constraints including social-economic, political, religious, ideological and cultural barriers. These set of constraints keep women away from the public and economic field, hence they fall in the extreme poverty groups. So policies related to the reduction of poverty should concentrate on specific constraints faced by women. Given the appropriate opportunity women can take part in income generation and thus get rid of poverty.
Development
Development is a concept that lacks a universally accepted definition, but it is most used in a holistic and multi-disciplinary context of human development – the development of greater quality of life for humans, (i.e. developed healthcare means longer life which is greater quality of life).
Development projects may consist of a single, transformative project to address a specific problem or a series of projects targeted at several aspects of society. Promoted projects are ones which involve problem solving that reflects the unique culture, politics, geography, and economy of a region. More recently, the focus in this field has been projects that aim towards empowering women, building local economies, and caring for the environment.
A district that has been developed to serve some purpose; "such land is practical for small park developments" a state in which things are improving; the result of developing (as in the early part of a game of chess); "after he saw the latest development he changed his mind and became a supporter"; "in chess your should take care of your development before moving your queen"
Processing a photosensitive material in order to make an image visible; "the development and printing of his pictures took only two hours"
Development is a peer-reviewed academic journal in the field of developmental biology that aims to publish fundamental insights into cellular and ...
“Development is empowerment: it is about local people taking control of their own lives, expressing their own demands and finding their own solutions to their problems.”
To bring a global development perspective to your work as a volunteer, it is vital to have some knowledge of the following topics. They form the wider context within which your experience will take place. Having some knowledge of the bigger picture will help you to understand the forces that might shape events at the local level of your placement.
Bangladesh's Development Strategies
While poverty reduction and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) need to remain to be the center of Bangladesh’s development strategy, there are suggestions to broaden the agenda towards a more forward-looking development and employment strategy. For example, it has been suggested that information technology could be Bangladesh’s superhighway to prosperity. Others consider agribusiness (for the domestic and foreign sectors) of being able to provide the amount of employment needed for Bangladesh’s growing population. Still others concentrate on intensifying export promotion polices. This research project will evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of some alternative development strategies as well as make suggestions on the optimal mix of alternative development strategies.
PRSP
The poverty reduction strategy paper (PRSP) provides an overall perspective of the country's poverty trends in terms of income-poverty and human poverty. The income poverty between 1991/92 and 2000 (on HIES unit-record data) shows a modest reduction one percentage per year (from 58.8 to 49.8 percent). There exists noticeable urban and rural variation in poverty. The pace of poverty reduction in nineties can't step up the overall poverty reduction of the country. The human poverty considered three dimensions i.e. deprivation in health, deprivation of education and deprivation of nutrition. The human poverty is accompanied by gender inequality, child mortality and the female-male gap in malnutrition.
PRSP in Bangladesh
Bangladesh took its decision to prepare the PRSP in the Bangladesh Development Forum 2000. That time, the time frame for completion of the PRSP was July 2002. In this context, the government has formed an inter-ministerial task force headed by the Secretary Economic Relations Division, Ministry of Finance in December 2000 to prepare the PRSP. The taskforce members include Secretaries, Additional Secretaries and Joint Secretaries of some relevant ministries. Additionally two professional consultants – one from the World Bank office in Bangladesh and the other from Bangladesh Institute of development Studies (BIDS), a government owned autonomous research institute - were hired to lead the drafting of the PRSP.
Till then up to March 2003 the government has prepared several drafts and organised some consultation meetings with different relevant stakeholders to prepare the final version of I-PRSP. It is stated in the I-PRSP that the document was finalised by the government through a participatory consultative process where cross section of with the people from government departments, civil society participated.
Meanwhile, the IPRSP was also presented to the Bangladesh Development Forum meeting held in Dhaka during May 16 to 18, 2003. It was titled ‘Bangladesh: A National Strategy for Economic Growth, Poverty Reduction and Social Development’.
Government has formulated a ‘Medium-Term Macroeconomic Framework for 2004-2006 fiscal periods with a view to implementing the poverty reduction strategy. Under the poverty reduction strategy, the government has fixed a four-fold policy matrix which includes - macroeconomic stability, improving governance, investing in human developments and social protection.
The IPRSP which has been approved by the government recently identified 3 issues as the immediate tasks. These are consolidating past successes in the socio-economic sector; correcting the earlier mistakes identified from the previous development experience, and thirdly, taking preparation to face the challenge of globalization.
The IPRSP portrays an overall perspective of the country's poverty trends in terms of income-poverty and human poverty. The income poverty between 1991/92 and 2000 [on Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) unit-record data] shows a modest reduction one percentage point per year (from 58.8 to 49.8 percent). There exists noticeable urban and rural variation in poverty. The pace of poverty reduction in nineties can't step up the overall poverty reduction of the country. The government supported programmers such as old age pension schemes; vulnerable group development (VGD), food for education (FFE) and food for works (FFW) reveal favorable effects.
However, the grassroots consultation reveals several key concerns relating to law and order situation, extortion and economic violence, ineffective local government and decentralization, poor quality of education, health and other social services, lack of infrastructure, lack of social capital at the community level resulting in low-level of collective action and lack of democratization of political process.
The paper proposes the five measures for long-term poverty reduction and social development. These are: (i) pro-poor economic growth for increasing income and employment of the poor; (ii) human development of the poor for raising their capability through education, health, nutrition and social interventions; (iii) woman's advancement and closing of gender gaps in development; (iv) social safety nets for the poor against anticipated and unanticipated income/consumption shocks through targeted and other efforts; and (v) participatory governance for enhancing voice of the poor and improving non-material dimensions of well-being including security, power and social inclusion by improving the performance of anti-poverty institutions and removing institutional hurdles to social mobility.
The paper sets a medium-term macro-economic framework that is supported by financing pattern and public resource provision to achieve the desired growth targets. The highlighted areas are macroeconomic stability, macro and trade reforms, governance and sectoral reforms. The proposed paper presents the national directions and priorities for achieving the poverty reduction goals. The policy matrix outlined the operational monitoring and evaluation methods of the specific poverty alleviating programs and projects.
Industrial development
Industrial Development Leasing Company of Bangladesh Limited operates as a non-banking and multi product financial institution in Bangladesh. Its services include leasing, deposits, personal investment, merchant banking, structured finance, factoring, capital investments, small and medium enterprises financing, car loans, and securities services. The company provides lease financing for manufacturing and service equipment to the industrial sectors; accepts deposits from various local and foreign corporate bodies, insurance companies, banks, and individuals; and provides individual house loan, developer finance, and corporate finance schemes. It also offers specialized services for issue management, underwriting, private placement, bridging finance, and trusteeship management; syndication, advisory services, corporate counseling, project counseling, merger and acquisition service, and securitization; and factoring of accounts receivable and work order finance services. In addition, the company provides a range of non discretionary portfolio management services to the investors; car loan finance for new and reconditioned cars; and securities brokerage service for retail and institutional clients. Industrial Development Leasing Company was founded in 1985 and is headquartered in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Gender development
Gender studies take us straight into peoples most private lives and this immediately brings the role of the researcher into question. Empowerment becomes the first and most essential requirement of both planning and development. The researcher must examine the specific articulation of patriarchy in private as well as public space. In old fashioned feminist terms, the personal becomes political. In gender studies seeking to lead us out of the impasse, development is defined in terms of the personal: personal empowerment in private and public space. This is highly antipathetic to traditional development studies, which have overwhelmingly concerned themselves with generalization, with representative samples, with prediction and with the public domain (Janet Townsend-1988)
I will present this paper in reference to the writing of Janet Townsend (Gender Studies: Whose Agenda?) from Bangladeshi perspective. In this paper Janet Townsend follows Caroline Moser’s history of gender planning in the third world and draws her own experience of research to emphasis the need for empowerment and the practical, theoretical and ethical difficulties of gender studies which seek to promote empowerment. She also made reference to extensive and intensive forms of research, since this is an issue which often confuses discussion. She thinks that we need both kinds of research: extensive research, which looks at the common properties and general patterns of a population as a whole; and intensive research, which examines some casual process in a limited number of cases. If we consider these things for our country we can find the same need for understanding gender situation.
In presenting this thematic paper I will try to relate the situation of Bangladesh in the area of gender, women empowerment and development. In my writing, I will try to present the existent gender situation of Bangladesh and the role of gender for the socio economic development of Bangladeshi women.
I will present this paper in reference to the writing of Janet Townsend (Gender Studies: Whose Agenda?) from Bangladeshi perspective. In this paper Janet Townsend follows Caroline Moser’s history of gender planning in the third world and draws her own experience of research to emphasis the need for empowerment and the practical, theoretical and ethical difficulties of gender studies which seek to promote empowerment. She also made reference to extensive and intensive forms of research, since this is an issue which often confuses discussion. She thinks that we need both kinds of research: extensive research, which looks at the common properties and general patterns of a population as a whole; and intensive research, which examines some casual process in a limited number of cases. If we consider these things for our country we can find the same need for understanding gender situation.
In presenting this thematic paper I will try to relate the situation of Bangladesh in the area of gender, women empowerment and development. In my writing, I will try to present the existent gender situation of Bangladesh and the role of gender for the socio economic development of Bangladeshi women.
Bangladesh is a highly patriarchal society and gender discrimination is present at all community levels. Women are dependent on men throughout their lives, from father through husbands to sons. While there are constitutional affirmations of gender equality, state legislation and institutions frequently overlook the rights of women. For example, women and young girls are more disadvantaged than men in their access to education, health care and financial assets. Traditionally, women were often discouraged from participating in public life. Women’s access to social, economic, political and legal institutions is mediated by men. Women are mainly recognized only for their reproductive role. However, due to increased poverty and an increased demand for labor, female employment has risen since the mid 1980’s. Men’s authority over women is reinforced by pervasive gender-based violence.
Having carefully examined the issue of gender, women development and women empowerment with the reference to other 3rd world countries gender situation, it is apparent that gender issue is not that much understandable to us. For working with gender firstly we have to understand the entire concept.
Before going to the main discussion I want to give an idea about Sex, Gender and Gender analysis. Sometimes it is hard to understand exactly what is meant by the term “gender”, and how it differs from the closely related term “sex”. "Sex” refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women. Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female and the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, as well as the relations between women and those between men. These attributes, opportunities and relationships are socially constructed and are learned through socialization processes. They are context/ time-specific and changeable. Gender determines what is expected, allowed and valued in a woman or a man in a given context. In most societies there are differences and inequalities between women and men in responsibilities assigned, activities undertaken, access to and control over resources, as well as decision-making opportunities. Gender is part of the broader socio-cultural context. Other important criterion for socio-cultural analysis includes class, race, poverty level, ethnic group and age
To put it another way: “Male” and “female” are sex categories, while “masculine” and “feminine” are gender categories. The socially-constructed concepts of masculinity and femininity; the “appropriate” qualities or characteristics that are expected to accompany each biological sex. Aspects of sex will not vary substantially between different human societies, while aspects of gender may vary greatly.
Gender analysis examines the differences in women's and men's lives, including those which lead to social and economic inequity for women, and applies this understanding to policy development and service delivery. It is concerned with the underlying causes of these inequities. Gender analysis aims to achieve equity, rather than equality. Gender equality is based on the premise that women and men should be treated in the same way. This fails to recognize that equal treatment will not produce equitable results, because women and men have different life experiences (Ministry of Women's Affairs).
Civil Service Change Management Programme
Ministry of Establishment (MoE) implemented a Preparatory Assistance (PA) project Developing Civil Service For 21st Century Administration funded by UNDP Bangladesh. The PA project did a lot of ground works for initiating a full-fledged project for managing change in the public administration of Bangladesh. In October, 2007 the PA project invited a formulation mission to identify the area of work where intervention is necessary in terms of reforming civil service. Based on the recommendations of the mission, Civil Service Change Management Programme (CSCMP) has been started from 1st January 2008.
- Development of sustainable support to desired reforms in the civil service
- Improvement in integrated human resource management systems in the civil service
- Development of organizational performance management strategy inclusive of e-governance
- Development of experiential learning and professional development opportunities in the public sector training institutions
- Partnership in developing ethics and integrity in public service
Start and end period: | Jan 01, 2008 - Dec 31, 2012 |
Approved Budget: | US$ 5500000.0 |
Donors: | TRAC |
Implementing Partners: | Ministry of Establishment |
Participatory rural development and rural government institution
In spite of two and a half decades of economic development, Bangladesh is still regarded largely as a rural economy. Agriculture contributes about one-third of its gross domestic product and about 80 per cent of its people still live in the rural areas. Further, most of the rural people are poor and disadvantaged. Their sufferings stem not only from low income but also from illiteracy, ill-health, ignorance and various kinds of deprivations. They are particularly vulnerable to calamities, both natural (cyclone, flood, drought, etc.) and man-made (black marketing, hoarding, etc.). Development planners recognise that the upliftment of the poor and backward masses is a pre-condition for the overall development of the country. Successive five year plans of the country, therefore, emphasised rural development with a focus on the rural poor, in one way or another. But in the implementation of this objective, the success was rather limited due to some constraints, at the top of which was the lack of participation by the stakeholders - the poor themselves, who hardly had any influence and control over development initiatives.
Participatory development embodies collective effort by the very people, who are the beneficiaries of development. In a well defined framework the people pool their efforts and whatever other resources they decide to pool together to attain the objectives they set for themselves. Participation is an active process through which stakeholders influence development initiatives and take action that is stimulated by their own thinking and deliberation, and over which they can exert effective control. Participation, thus, may be viewed as the exercise of people's power in thinking and acting and, thereby, realising the essence of democracy in conformity with the constitutional dictum that all power belong to the people. Implicit in this concept of participation is the concept of self-reliance, if not self-sufficiency.
Environment and sustainable development
Environment, as per the Environment Protection Act, 1995 includes water, air, land and physical properties and the inter-relationships which exist among and between them and human beings, other living creatures, plants and micro-organisms. The environment is thus the sum total of all social, physical, biological and ecological factors. Social environment is centered round human beings. It is their institutions, group behavior, habitation and interaction in production and consumption of their wealth. The human activities entail using natural resources and interfering with natural environment, increasingly with the increase in growth. Environmental concerns have, therefore, assumed vital importance. It is now widely accepted that there must be an integrated approach between environment and development. As such, there is a need for integration of environment into development planning and activities. Environment is where we live and development is what we all do in attempting to improve our standard of living. Bangladesh has many environmental problems, natural or man-made, such as frequent natural disasters, industrial pollution, poor health and sanitation, deforestation, desertification, changes in climatic conditions, salinity, deteriorating habitat of flora and fauna, etc. which we have to face, solve or compensate for.
Public administration
The Fifth Plan period is planned to be a period of reforms and development. To spearhead the process public administration will be reengineered, redesigned and reoriented. To the end of deregulation, liberalization and privatization and effective delivery of administrative, legal, social and economic services, public administration will be the main conduit. Merit based recruitment; rigorous training and targets for high level of performance will be the cornerstones of public administration.
Creation of an efficient public administrative system was one of the major objectives pursued in the past plans. Enhancement of job knowledge and skills of the public personnel through systematic training, establishment of training institutes for such purpose, organizational development, improvement of personnel administration in the government, semi-government and autonomous bodies, streamlining of administration through simplification of accounts, budgeting and financial and administrative procedures and restructuring of government offices and agencies were some of the major efforts towards bringing in efficiency in administration.
As a first step towards increasing the efficiency of a newly emerged administration, the First Plan, on the recommendations of a Services Reorganization Committee, envisaged immediate training of personnel involved in administration and management. Projects were undertaken mostly to provide institutional framework for such training. The Civil Officers' Training Academy (COTA), the National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA) and the Staff Training Institutes (STIs) were developed and the Bangladesh Administrative Staff College (BASC) was set up for training of senior officers at the policy level. The Plan emphasized formulation of unified administration and management training policies and programmes and constitution of a National Training Council (NTC) for providing overall direction to training for human development. The NTC was constituted in 1981 during the Second Plan period. It provided guidelines to the Ministry of Establishment for formulation of a training policy. In the Third Plan period, policy dimension of creating new institutions for training was changed; consolidation of training institutions rather than proliferation was given emphasis. The Public Administration Training Centre (PATC) at Savar was established amalgamating the former COTA, NIPA and the BASC. The Foreign Affairs Training Institute (FATI) was merged with the BCS (Admin) Academy, earlier established to cater to the professional training in law, administration and development. Former divisional STIs were developed as Regional Public Administration Training Centers (RPATCs) and placed under the administration and management control of the PATC. Subsequently, though the consolidation of training institutions on management development was done, several professional training institutes were established because of given emphasis on professional development. Institute of Chartered Accountants, Bangladesh (ICAB), Institute of Cost and Management Accountants, Bangladesh (ICMAB), Academy for Planning and Development (APD), Audit and Accounts Training Academy, Institute of Bank Management and Bangladesh Institute of Administration and Management (BIAM) were established. At the end of the Fourth Plan, an Electoral Training Institute (ETI) was established and it started functioning under the aegis of the Election Commission to cater to the training needs of personnel involved in the election process.
During the previous planned development period (1973-95), the highest priority in public administration was accorded to personnel training which absorbed as much as 55 per cent of sectoral allocation in the First Plan, 51 per cent in the Second Plan, 67 per cent in the Third Plan and about 60 per cent in the Fourth Plan.
Public Administration Projects ( 1973-1997)( in million Taka)
Plan Period | Allocation | Number of Projects Taken | Number of Projects Completed | Amount Utilised | Percentage Utilisation Over ADP | ||
Plan (at base year prices) | ADP (at current prices) | Spill-over | New | (at current prices) | Allocation | ||
1973-78 | 131.20 | 105.00 | 0 | 21 | 4 | 40.60 | 38.66 |
1978-80 | 111.20 | 113.80 | 17 | 10 | 7 | 89.80 | 78.91 |
1980-85 | 380.00 | 641.00 | 20 | 34 | 37 | 483.00 | 75.35 |
1985-90 | 650.00 | 1,113.80 | 17 | 35 | 24 | 474.50 | 42.60 |
1990-95 | 2,010.00 | 3,446.90 | 28 | 43 | 21 | 710.00 | 20.59 |
1995/96 | -- | *1,761.70 | 50 | 11 | 14 | *1,550.20 | 87.99 |
1996/97 | 956.20 | 47 | 3 | -- | 698.30 | 73.20 | |
Total | 3,282.40 | 8,138.40 | -- | 157 | 107 | 4,046.40 | -- |
Women empowerment
Although women constitute about half of the Bangladesh population, their social status especially in rural areas remains very low. Rural women belong to the most deprived section of the society facing adverse conditions in terms of social oppression and economic inequality, a visible majority of them being extremely poor. Considering this scenario, this paper investigates the nature and extent of rural women's empowerment and factors influencing it. The paper further outlines a strategic framework for enhancing rural women's empowerment.
The methodology of this study is an integration of quantitative and qualitative methods based on data collected in three villages of Mymensingh district. Six key indicators of empowerment covering three dimensions were chosen for this purpose. Data were collected from 156 respondents during January-April 2003 following stratified random sampling. Finally, a cumulative empowerment index (CEI) was developed adding the obtained scores of six empowerment indicators.
The distribution of empowerment indicators show that 83% of the women have a very low to low economic contribution, 44% have a very low to low access to resources, 93% have a very poor to poor asset ownership, 73% have a moderate to high participation in household decision-making, 43% have a highly unfavorable to unfavorable perception on gender awareness and 72% have a moderate to high coping capacity to household shocks. The distribution of CEI demonstrates that the majority of rural women have a very low to moderate (82%) level of empowerment. The multiple regression analysis shows that there were strong positive effects of formal and non-formal education, information media exposure and spatial mobility on women's CEI, while traditional socio-cultural norms have a strong negative effect.
The study concludes that education, training and exposure to information media have the potential to increase women’s empowerment. Therefore, effective initiatives undertaken by the concerned agencies in improving women’s education, skill acquisition training and access to information could enhance women's empowerment in order to achieve gender equality and development at all levels in the rural society of Bangladesh.
4.2 Extent of Women’s Empowerment
The main variable constructed in this study is women’s CEI and its distribution is depicted in Table 4. It reveals that 11% of the respondents fall under a very low empowerment category, 36% low, 35% medium, 12% high empowerment category, respectively and only few of them (5%) belong to a very high empowerment category. It can be noticed, however, that an overwhelming majority of women (82%) are concentrated in very low to moderate tail of empowerment distribution. Due to the low level of empowerment, poor women acutely feel their powerlessness and insecurity, their vulnerability and a lack of dignity within the household.
Poverty alleviation employment and human resource development
All poverty alleviation efforts have been singularly concerned with the poor over time. The dynamic process of impoverisation is however more complex than caring for the poor. There are movements across the poverty lines (BIDS: 1996). In fact, relatively more people moved into the extreme poverty level from above than from the latter group, apparently resulting in polarization of the non-poor and the extreme poor in the rural areas. In 1989/90, BIDS sample shows that the extreme poor group constituted 16.7 per cent, excluding households (18.3 per cent) who fluctuated between moderate poverty and extreme poverty, while 44.6 per cent were non-poor. In 1994, 17.6 per cent were in extreme poverty (excluding fluctuating group). The corresponding percentage of the non-poor was 45.6 per cent. Relatively more people also crossed into the group of the non-poor with the moderate poor being proportionately less (20.4 per cent in 1989/90 to 18.3 per cent in 1994). This movement from the moderate group is indicative of improvement in absolute poverty, while extreme poverty seems to be growing.
This movement has been caused by unredeemed pressure on land due to inadequate non-farm employment opportunities, consequent increase in marginal farming, frequent natural calamities and above all, fluctuations in sluggish economic growth.
Agricultural water resources and rural development
Agriculture plays a vital role in the growth and stability of the country’s economy as is indicated by its share in GDP, employment and export earnings. At present, it accounts for about one-third of GDP and employs about two-thirds of the labor force. Exports of agricultural primary products accounted for about 12 per cent of total exports in 1996/97 and if exports of agriculture based intermediate and industrial products (leather, jute) are taken into account, its contribution comes to nearly 24 per cent. If the newly emerged ready-made garments which contribute as much as 51 per cent of export earnings is viewed in domestic value added terms, agriculture is the main source of export earnings of the country. Apart from these, the role of agriculture is unique for food security and nutritional status of people. However, as industrialization proceeds, the output of agriculture will represent a declining share of the gross output of the economy while the share of manufacturing and services sectors will increase. Although the contribution of agriculture to the economy is likely to decline, it will continue to be the single largest contributor to income and employment of the rural population in the foreseeable future.
Crop agriculture represented a share of about 24 per cent in total GDP and about 73 per cent in agricultural GDP during 1996/97. Within crop sub-sector, food grain, particularly the rice crop dominated the country’s agricultural scenario in respect of both cropped area and production claiming a share of 74 per cent and 54 per cent respectively in 1996/97. Thus, development of rice crop has substantial impact on the sector’s performance. There has, however, been shift in the composition of agriculture over the past few years as indicated by gradual decline in the share of crop agriculture and increase in the share of non-crop agriculture (NCA) which consists of livestock, fisheries and forestry. The NCA, particularly the livestock and fisheries, have, of late, taken off largely through private sector initiatives showing robust growth of 7.98 per cent and 8.60 per cent respectively in 1996/97. Hence, it is envisaged in the Plan to develop an integrated agriculture including crops, along with food management, livestock, fisheries, forestry and environment through more efficient utilization of available land and water resources for sustainable agricultural growth.
Transport development
An adequate and efficient transport system is a pre-requisite for both initiating and sustaining economic development. Investment in improving transport efficiency is the key to expansion and integration of markets - sub-national, national and international. It also helps the generation of economies of scale, increased competition, reduced cost, systematic urbanization, export-led faster growth and a larger share of international trade.
The transport system of Bangladesh consists of roads, railways, inland waterways, two sea ports, maritime shipping and civil aviation catering for both domestic and international traffic. Presently there are about 21,000 km of paved roads; 2,706 route-kilometers of railways (BG-884 km and MG -1,822 km); 3,800 km of perennial waterways which increases to 6,000 km during the monsoon, 2 seaports and 2 international (Dhaka and Chittagong) and 8 domestic airports.
In Bangladesh, development and maintenance of transport infrastructure is essentially the responsibilities of the public sector as are the provision of railways transportation services and air transport. The public sector is involved in transport operations in road, inland water transport (IWT) and ocean shipping alongside the private sector. In the road transport and IWT sub-sectors, the private sector is dominant. In ocean shipping, however, public sector still predominates, although the private sector has considerably increased its role in this sector in recent years. Recently private sector has also been involved in domestic air transport and railway in a very limited scale.
Modes | First Five Year Plan (1973-78) | Two Year Plan (1978-80) | Second Five Year Plan (1980-85) | Third Five Year Plan (1985-90) | Fourth Five Year Plan (1990-95) | 1995 to 1997 (in current prices) |
Roads Bangabandhu Bridge Railways Water Transport (including ports & shipping) Airways | 1,496.10 - 1,261.30 1,862.20 656.50 | 1,687.90 - 1,230.80 1,098.60 482.70 | 4,090.20 - 4,133.90 3,168.70 1,471.80 | 11,853.00* 2,000.00 8,360.00 5,710.00 2,100.00 | 34,650.00 10,000.00 8,350.00 7,930.00 2,800.00 | 18,467.10 20,679.20 3,986.70 1,319.00 1,027.00 |
Total | 5,276.10 | 4,500.00 | 12,864.60 | 30,023.00 | 63,730.00 | 45,479.00 |
Allocation as per cent of Total Public Sector Outlay | 11.65 | 13.79 | 11.59 | 12.01 | 16.91 | 18.81 |
Education development
Education is the basic need for socio-economic transformation and advancement of a country. It is the prime ingredient of human resource development. In Bangladesh educational development was not adequately geared to meet this human need. The overall literacy rate (7 years and above) in Bangladesh is about 44.3 per cent (1995), the female literacy rate being 28.5 per cent and the male, 50.4 per cent. The gap of literacy rates between the urban and rural areas is very wide - 36.6 per cent in rural and 63.0 per cent in urban areas. As a step towards increasing the literacy rate, universal primary education has been made compulsory. The Constitution of Bangladesh obligates the government to adopt effective measures for (a) establishing a uniform, mass-oriented and universal system of education and extending free and compulsory education to all children to such stage as may be determined by law; (b) relating education to the needs of society and producing properly trained and motivated citizens to serve those needs; and (c) removing illiteracy within such times as may be determined by law. Education plays the most important role for creating trained workforce for a nation. The educated and trained workforce can easily acquire new information and technology and apply them in new situations. In this respect, the contents of education in Bangladesh need some modifications in the context of present day situation taking cognisance of rapidly changing stock of knowledge, particularly in the field of science and technology. More emphasis on scientific and technical education as has been the case during the recent years, will go a long way in enlarging the technological base of economic development and laying foundation of a knowledge based society. To supplement government efforts, there is need for greater participation of the private sector, community and non-government organizations (NGOs).
Primary Education
During the Fourth Plan, steps were taken for the improvement of primary education and the thrust was on introduction of Compulsory Primary Education (CPE). The major objectives were to ensure (a) optimum use of existing physical facilities and maintaining regional balance in respect of creating new educational facilities, (b) enhanced participation of women at the primary level as teachers, (c) establishment of an effective system of in-service training of primary school teachers, (d) development of primary school curricula, and (e) introduction of academic supervision and administrative inspection.
The original Plan allocation for primary education was Tk.14,281.68 million. The allocation, however, was increased to Tk.24,216.48 million through ADPs and the actual expenditure was Tk.20,307.40 million. The allocation for primary education was in the range of 50-52 per cent of total allocation made for the education sector in the ADPs. The year-wise position of allocation and expenditure is shown in Table 20.1.
Allocation and Expenditure for Primary Education 1990-95 (in million Taka)
Year | Allocation * | Expenditure * | Allocation ** | Expenditure ** |
1990-91 | 1,939.16 | 888.78 | 1,804.34 | 826.99 |
1991-92 | 3,445.73 | 1,885.49 | 3,059.07 | 1,673.91 |
1992-93 | 3,957.76 | 3,401.96 | 3,394.01 | 2,917.38 |
1993-94 | 6,285.87 | 5,817.59 | 5,315.14 | 4,919.18 |
1994-95 | 8,587.96 | 8,313.58 | 7,316.88 | 7,083.12 |
Total | 24,216.48 | 20,307.40 | 20,889.44 | 17,420.58 |
Development project and Bangladesh
Cropping Systems (Bangladesh) - Phase I
Project Number 740019Start Date 1974/10/03Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
Project Number 740019Start Date 1974/10/03Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
A 3 1/2 year program on cropping systems at the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) will begin by gathering firsthand data on current cropping systems and, on the basis of these, developing improved practices and systems which can be recommended for adoption by farmers. The objective of this project is to increase food production in Bangladesh by introducing and testing new cropping systems, evaluating economically these cropping systems, and developing more efficient year round land use systems for different agroclimatic zones.
Shigella (Bangladesh)
Project Number 750014Start Date 1975/07/16Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
Project Number 750014Start Date 1975/07/16Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
An epidemic of shigella dysentery (Shiga bacillus) has swept through Bangladesh in the past few years. Researchers at the Cholera Research Laboratory (CRL) in Dacca have discovered that the disease is at least 100 times more common than it was 5 years before, that there is an overall mortality rate of 6%, and that the bacillus is now resistant to many of the antibiotics usually used against it. The objectives of this project are to establish a treatment centre in a rural area, to determine the factors relating to transmission and severity of the illness, and to develop a simple and effective method of therapy.
LANDSAT Bangladesh
Project Number 760063Start Date 1977/06/08Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
The Government of Bangladesh's Land Satellite (LANDSAT) Programme utilized remote-sensing technology applied to land-use planning and resource development. The hills adjoining the Karnaphuli reservoir suffer from erosion caused by shifting cultivation and the displacement of people from the lower valleys. This project used LANDSAT data to evolve a method of land-use management that would maintain an ecological balance in the Karnaphuli area and initiate measures to counteract the situation.
Biogas Technology: Social and Economic Evaluation
Project Number 770076Start Date 1978/02/10Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
Biogas technology - whereby methane gas and an organic residue rich in plant nutrients is produced by the fermentation of materials high in cellulose (e.g. cow dung) in the absence of air - could meet many of the energy and fertilizer needs of rural areas. Little is known of the limitations of the technology or the social and economic context for which it is thought to be appropriate. This project will develop and apply a methodology that will provide information and analysis of the socioeconomic value of installed biogas plants and on the energy characteristics of selected rural areas in which the further application of biogas technology might be considered.
Sanitation Impact (Bangladesh)
Project Number 770095Start Date 1979/01/12Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
The Cholera Research Laboratory (CRL) intends to expand its studies to investigate the effects of providing sanitary education and latrines in addition to water supply in Southeast Bangladesh. The objective of this project is to determine the impact of combinations for improved water supply, sanitation facilities, and sanitary education on diarrhea, parasitic infections, and skin diseases in rural populations of Bangladesh.
Technological Capacity in the Chemical Sector (Bangladesh)
Project Number 800200Start Date 1981/06/24Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
The industrial sector in Bangladesh plays an important role in generating foreign exchange earnings. The three branches of the chemical sector (fertilizers, pulp and paper, and rayon) illustrate the difficult choices facing a poor country such as Bangladesh in establishing an appropriate technology policy. This project will examine the role of technological capability and its contribution to the chemical sector; the levels and trends of productivity indicators in order to identify the nature of technical changes and their influence on plant performance; the influence of power failures, raw material shortages, markets and government policies on technological behaviour; and ways of improving technological capability.
Fertility and Family Structure (Bangladesh)
Project Number 810163Start Date 1982/03/09Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
Bangladesh has one of the highest rates of population growth in the world in spite of continued efforts to reduce fertility. A central problem seems to be the lack of information concerning motivation for fertility planning and contraceptive use among Bangladesh families. This project will explore one of the dimensions that bears upon this motivation, namely family structure and roles of family members in influencing the decision-making of young couples. Researchers will examine the demographic characteristics of the family; study the norms governing the formation, development and underlying structure of the family; and study the influence of family obligations on the reproductive decisions of individual couples.
Integrated Family Planning (Bangladesh)
Project Number 820146Start Date 1983/01/19Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
Many Asian countries are concerned with high rates of population growth, especially Bangladesh, which has one of the highest. In attempting to meet both population and development goals more effectively and efficiently, Bangladesh has integrated population and development activities. This project will analyze the demographic and socioeconomic impact of various types of integrated family planning programs in Bangladesh and compare their effectiveness. The focus of the project will be upon variations in degree and kind of integration and between publicly and privately administered programs. Researchers will examine differences in organizational aspects and community participation; and determine which development activities lend themselves most readily to integration with family planning.
Participatory Training Approach to Rural Community Development (Bangladesh)
Project Number 830191Start Date 1984/01/01Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
The Village Education Resource Center (VERC), Bangladesh, was founded in 1977 as a non-profit, national voluntary organization. One of VERC's aims is to develop self-reliance among village leaders and village people by training them for village action programs using the "participatory approach". This project will enable VERC to train people at the thana or municipality level in five centres located in various parts of the country. Researchers will implement, monitor, evaluate, and document the "participatory" method of training.
River Bank Erosion Impact Study in Bangladesh
Project Number 831003Start Date 1984/06/20Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
Every year in Bangladesh substantial tracts of land are lost through river bank erosion and the changing course of swollen river channels during the monsoon rains, forcing the dislocation of many peasants. There is a need for socioeconomic research on the problems created by this annual phenomenon. The objectives of this project are to evaluate the long-term trends in shifts in river courses, with a view to developing forecasting techniques and models for rural planners; and to assess the socioeconomic and demographic impact of the annual involuntary migrations of the rural peasant population, and develop policy options to reduce the dislocating effect of the annual floods.
Prevention of Malnutrition (Bangladesh)
Project Number 850094Start Date 1986/06/04Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
Malnutrition in pre-school children is a major public health concern in Bangladesh. Although much is known about the causes of malnutrition, there is a great need to develop and evaluate practical and effective preventative programs. This project will develop and evaluate a nutrition education program for rural areas. Researchers will test its effectiveness in changing nutrition-related knowledge, attitudes and behaviour; determine its short-term impact on infant nutrition; and identify the social, economic and cultural factors that influence its acceptance or rejection.
Female Participation in Post-Primary Education (Bangladesh)
Project Number 860043Start Date 1986/11/06Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
In Bangladesh, as in many of the world's poorest countries, female participation in education is much lower than that for males. The government is concerned about the relatively low participation of girls in post-primary education. In this project, researchers will determine the proportion of primary school graduate girls who pursue secondary education, informal education or neither and determine their reasons; determine the rate of drop-out from secondary school and informal education for girls and the reasons for dropping out; conduct case studies of various special programs in secondary education for girls to determine their characteristics, operation, popularity and effectiveness; and formulate policy recommendations for increasing female participation in post-primary education.
Impact of Decentralization on Rural Poverty (Asia). Project Number 890331Start Date 1990/05/24Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
In most of the countries in Asia and the Pacific, the highly centralized planning approach introduced during the 1950s to utilize most effectively the scarce resources available for development, failed to achieve the intended goals. This experience has led policymakers and development practitioners to emphasize the need for decentralization and the creation of organizations that could plan and implement policies and programs at regional and sub regional levels. This project will assess the socioeconomic impact of decentralization of rural development programs on the rural poor in five Asian countries (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand) and analyze the extent of participation of the rural poor in the planning and implementation of decentralized programs. The project is expected to generate an improved understanding of the process and impact of decentralization on rural poverty as well as practical policy recommendations in this regard.
Monitoring Adjustment and Poverty (Bangladesh) - Phase I
Project Number 910235Start Date 1992/02/16Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
At 40-50%, the incidence of poverty is overwhelming in Bangladesh. This project will address major gaps in the identification and monitoring of poverty and malnutrition in the country, and the analysis of the impacts of macroeconomic and adjustment policies on poorer households. Surveys will be conducted in rural and urban areas, and on the nutritional status of the poor, which will provide an empirical basis for analyzing the impact of macro policies at household levels. A methodology will be tested by using multidimensional indicators in surveys of selected areas. A data base will be prepared based on survey results. The project has been developed in collaboration with CIDA as a first or "framework" phase in developing ongoing capacity and improved mechanisms for poverty monitoring, analysis, policy/program development and utilization. Links will be made with related activities in Asia, notably the MIMAP (Micro Impacts of Macro and Adjustment Policies) Project in the Philippines. The established Asia-Pacific network of the recipient institution offers avenues toward a wider research network on this subject.
Women and Health: Exploring the Socio-cultural Barriers and Determinants of Women's Health Status in Rural Bangladesh
Project Number 000260Start Date 1993/10/19Program Area/Group SEP | Gender
Maternal and child mortality/morbidity rates in Bangladesh are relatively high. Social and cultural beliefs and practices regarding motherhood and childrearing have significant influence on maternal/child health. Also, utilization of available health care resources by women is relatively low. The situation is most severe in rural areas where women are largely illiterate and suffer from structural as well as socio cultural barriers to accessing health services. This project will take an anthropological approach and use a variety of qualitative and quantitative methods to identify the socio cultural as well as structural barriers to better health for women and children in rural Bangladesh. Set in Matlab, a rural area sixty miles south of the capital Dhaka, the study will also attempt to identify change agents that may be used to bring about behavioral changes among women and children, and the community at large. The potential and practicality of using local primary schools for promoting health will be explored. Likewise, the role of traditional birth attendants (TBAs), school teachers, local religious leaders, and elites in promoting maternal and child health will also be analyzed. Recognizing the strong relationship between education and health behavior, practices, and resources utilization, the study will identify socio cultural barriers to female education in rural areas. The ultimate goal is to help design culturally sensitive policies and intervention programs to increase rural Bangladeshi women's participation in and utilization of health care resources.
PAN - Bangladesh and PINS Bangladesh (Project Development
Project Number 040323Start Date 1996/02/21Program Area/Group PB-CORP | Sunset
This activity will enlist the assistance of two consultants in the technical development of two proposed projects within the PAN Asia Networking (PAN) program initiative: PAN-Bangladesh, which covers networking infrastructure, and PINS Bangladesh, which includes information and networking services. The two consultants have been identified as Mr Rob Hurle, Head, Coombs Computing Unit, Australian National University (ANU); and Mr Shan Ali, Manager, Software Quality & Productivity Sector, Telstra Sydney. ANU is interested in establishing linkages between South Asian research and teaching institutions and Australian institutions with research interests in South Asia. As such, it is contributing Mr Rob Hurle's consultancy time free of charge. Mr Shan Ali, an Australian of Bangladeshi origin, is interested in seeing the Grameen Bank benefit from the PAN program, because of the tremendous impact of its work in Bangladesh. The Grameen Bank employs 14 000 workers and provides half a billion US dollars a year in loans averaging just $140 each. It's social and educational programme reaches more than 12 million people. Mr Ali is contributing his time free of charge in order to introduce PAN to the Grameen Bank's officials and economists, as well as to its work. Visits to villages that benefit from the Grameen Bank are expected. This grant will allow Mr Hurle and Mr Ali to accompany the PAN team leader to Bangladesh in February 1996 to assess the needs of the Grameen Bank and to survey other opportunities for PAN in Bangladesh. It will cover airfares, living and other expenses associated with the mission.
Rural Development Communications Network
Project Number 003637Start Date 1997/11/06Program Area/Group ICT4D | PAN-Asia
The Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP) is a regional, inter-governmental organization comprising 13 member countries, namely, Afghanistan, Bangladesh (host state), India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. Its main objectives are to assist national action, encourage regional cooperation and promote rural development through research, training and information dissemination. Slow communication has a negative impact on the ability of rural development planners, policymakers and decision makers in CIRDAP member countries to transmit, utilize and exchange information and data. This project will provide an electronic communication platform by connecting the rural development ministries of CIRDAP's member countries and their designated research and development institutions, to the Internet.
The second component of this project involves the Community Development Library (CDL), also based in Dhaka. CDL collects, processes and disseminates information on socio-economic issues through its central library in Dhaka and 27 rural information resource centres, including two divisional centres in Bogra and Khulna. Users of the library include workers in non-governmental organizations (NGOs), researchers, teachers, students, members of the community, etc. This project will test e-mail and Internet access at the two divisional libraries and establish linkages with CDL's central office; publish an electronic journal on development issues; organize e-mail and Internet user training in the divisional centres and central office of CDL; and establish a website of CDL publications.
The second component of this project involves the Community Development Library (CDL), also based in Dhaka. CDL collects, processes and disseminates information on socio-economic issues through its central library in Dhaka and 27 rural information resource centres, including two divisional centres in Bogra and Khulna. Users of the library include workers in non-governmental organizations (NGOs), researchers, teachers, students, members of the community, etc. This project will test e-mail and Internet access at the two divisional libraries and establish linkages with CDL's central office; publish an electronic journal on development issues; organize e-mail and Internet user training in the divisional centres and central office of CDL; and establish a website of CDL publications.
Macroeconomic and Adjustment Policies (MAP) - Gender Network
Project Number 003830Start Date 1998/10/01Program Area/Group SEP | MIMAP
All countries in South and Southeast Asia have recently embarked on economic reforms. A lot of research has been done on the likely impact of such reforms on living standards, poverty indices and various macroeconomic parameters. Little systematic research, however, has been undertaken on the gender dimension of economic reform. Part of the reason for this lies in the intrinsic difficulty of modeling gender, as such, and in analyzing gender imbalances under changing economic environments.
This project will initiate a programmed of research to analyze and contextualize the gender dimension of economic reform in a coordinated and systematic manner in five South Asia countries, i.e. Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Later, it will be extended to some Southeast Asian countries. The common element of the proposed research agenda in all five countries will be a detailed mapping of the major conventional indicators of gender bias using available census and large-scale sample survey data. A second component will design household surveys in a manner that will enable the research teams to map conventional and non-conventional indicators (e.g., gender-related violence, anxiety and stress) against one another and in different contexts and changing macroeconomic environments. The network will also identify areas for further research and networking activities and commission review papers to further such activities. The participating countries will be free to supplement their work with sector-specific studies as required and within the pre-assigned budget.
This project will last for two years, culminating in one international workshop and a book published by a reputable publisher. The activities of this project will be guided by an advisory board of internationally recognized scholars on the topic
Garments Value Chains and EU Trade Policy
Project Number 100687Start Date 2000/09/26Program Area/Group SID | SID
The garment industry is the second largest formal employer of women in the developing world, and the most important employer of women with little education. This activity constitutes the first component of a research program that will examine the institutional structure of international trade and employment in the garment industry in selected developing countries (provisionally, Bangladesh, Morocco and South Africa) and the symbiotic relationship between exporting developing country producers and developed country buyers, in this case, in the European Union. Using the "value chain" approach, a consultant will explore the interaction between trade policy and the practices of firms within the value chain that determine competitiveness. The value chain is a useful analytical tool because it requires that the various parties to the relationship be identified and focuses on the nature of the interactions between them in the financial, technological and decision-making domain. The research will include a close examination of informal employment within the industry.
MIMAP Bangladesh - Phase IV
Project Number 100713Start Date 2001/03/15Program Area/Group SEP | MIMAP
Previous phases of MIMAP Bangladesh (94-8304 (002550)- Phase III, 93-8305-Phase II, 91-0235 - Phase I) succeeded in carrying out poverty monitoring surveys and made progress toward institutionalizing this capacity in the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics; operationalizing a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model for use in policy development; conducting sector and issue studies on key elements of macroeconomic policy and poverty; developing and institutionalizing a computerized information system oriented to policymakers; and formulating an improved set of macroeconomic policies, sectoral policies and poverty reduction interventions. This phase will extend the modeling and policy analysis in several directions. Activities will include the incorporation of micro-simulation techniques to pinpoint poverty incidence and causes, and the design and pilot testing of a community-based poverty monitoring system. Such systems have yielded very positive early results in the Philippines, Viet Nam and Nepal. Phase IV will also include focus studies to supplement the aforementioned activities; an expanded policy information system that includes geographical information systems (GIS) and spatial data; the production of regular poverty profiles; and a strong dissemination and networking component.
South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE)
Project Number 102580Start Date 2004/07/01Program Area/Group PB-CORP | PPB CORP
The South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE) was established in late 1999 with financial support from the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) and technical support from the Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics. Its main goal is to enhance the capacity of South Asian countries (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) to understand the linkages between growth, environment and poverty, and to use this knowledge to influence development policy. To this end, SANDEE offers research support, basic and advanced training, policy-relevant information and regional networking. This grant will provide partial support to SANDEE over a 3-year period in collaboration with other donors.
Fellowship on Governance Issues in Bangladesh : Dr Akbar Ali Khan
Project Number 105117Start Date 2008/04/01Program Area/Group SID | SID
Dr Akbar Ali Khan is a distinguished Bangladeshi economist, civil servant and professor who helped found the Centre for Governance Studies at BRAC (Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee) University and served as its director from 2005-2006. Dr Khan is preparing a book on governance issues in Bangladesh, primarily for use in teaching, and needs access to experts and library resources in North America, the United Kingdom and a number of other Asian countries. This grant will cover his travel, living and documentary expenses while preparing the book. Most of his time will be spent at the University of Toronto, Queen's University (Kingston), the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (Washington, D.C.), the John F. Kennedy School of Government (Boston), and the School for Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) or the Institute for Development Studies (IDS) in the United Kingdom, as well as facilities in India and Singapore.
Human Rights and Peace Audit on Partition as a Method of Resolving Ethno-National Conflicts in South Asia - Phase II
Project Number 105546Start Date 2009/02/03Program Area/Group SEP | PCD
In South Asia, people's social, political and cultural aspirations often get articulated as movements for territorially defined political change. Very often, these movements find resolution in partition or in an ethnic group/nationality getting autonomous control over the region in which it resides. This study hypothesizes that while the ideological impulse toward partition may be democratic, its consequences are undemocratic. Partition-based peace settlements may stop immediate violence, but are likely to produce endemic violence, because the root cause of the grievance - democracy deficit, not ethnicity - remains unresolved.
Building on the results of the first phase of the project (103989), researchers will endeavor to bring the voices of the vulnerable into the partition discourse 60 years after the Great Partition of 1947 (India-Pakistan). They will examine the strengths and weaknesses of the integration efforts of the resulting states, the weaknesses inherent in the practice of peacemaking under partition-based peace accords, and ways in which the consequences of partition can be made more democratic, rights enabling, and conducive to peace and security. The field-based research will be carried out in several South Asian contexts.
Building on the results of the first phase of the project (103989), researchers will endeavor to bring the voices of the vulnerable into the partition discourse 60 years after the Great Partition of 1947 (India-Pakistan). They will examine the strengths and weaknesses of the integration efforts of the resulting states, the weaknesses inherent in the practice of peacemaking under partition-based peace accords, and ways in which the consequences of partition can be made more democratic, rights enabling, and conducive to peace and security. The field-based research will be carried out in several South Asian contexts.
Revisiting the Devaluation of Daughters in Bangladesh: Continuity or Change?
Project Number 105866Start Date 2009/10/06Program Area/Group SEP | WRC
There exists a large body of literature on regional variations in female mortality relative to male, resulting in sex ratios heavily biased toward men. Amartya Sen has described this as the phenomenon of "missing women," that is, the number of women there would have been in a population if women's chances of survival were similar to those of men. Adverse sex ratios are largely concentrated in specific regions of the world that share common patterns of gender and kinship relations. These include matrilineal principles of descent and inheritance, patriarchal control over family labor and resources, strong restrictions on women's mobility in the public domain, paralegal residence of the married couple, and the absorption of women and children into the husband's kinship group. South Asia features its own sub regional distribution of adverse sex ratios, with marked adversity in the northwest, less adversity in the south and intermediate levels of adversity in the eastern states, including Bangladesh.
Understanding the Demographic and Health Transition in Developing Countries
Project Number 105727Start Date 2009/06/24Program Area/Group SEP | GEH
The shift from high to low levels of mortality and fertility called the demographic transition occurred over a century ago in the developed world. While the reasons for the transition in Western Europe and North America are well documented, little is known about the transition in developing countries except that it is reported to be underway in many developing countries, to differ from the transition that occurred in the West, and to show more diversity than was the case in the West. Much of what we know about the transition in developing countries comes from analysis of demographic and health survey data. But, these data are limited and do not provide information on cause of death, which is very important in characterizing shifts in the burden of disease.
Conclusion
Therefore to enact reforms, effective reforms, the interests of the major actors must be in alignment, otherwise reform will be prevented or neutralized. A challenge for the research community is to help devise reforms with incentives to ensure alignment and successful enactment. If the party in power has the wish, has the “will”, it can arrange for a fair recruitment system, which may again attract bright, meritorious students. If the party in power shows reluctance in bringing about the change, pressure may come from development partners or civil society. We are not saying that it will solve all the problems, but it can be a start. It can make the bureaucracy an efficient, innovative and dynamic one to respond to the needs of the society. We know from previous experiences that a capable bureaucracy can make things happen, can turn dreams into reality.
Please note that Mr. Shan Ali is not a Bangladeshi origin. He is a Pakistani
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